In the Sorbonne of the nineteenth century， the studies consist of the speculative systems of a few isolated， divergent intellects who have exercised no authority over the multitude， while in the Sorbonne of the eighteenth century， the studies consisted of the creed， morality， discipline， history and canons of a Church which had already existed seventeen centuries and which， comprising one hundred and fifty millions of souls， still sways one-half of the civilized world. - To a theoretical education add practical education. A curé and with still more reason， a canon， an archdeacon， a bishop， was not a passing stranger， endowed by the State， wearing a surplice， as little belonging to his age through his ministry as through his dress， and wholly confined to his spiritual functions： he managed the revenues of his dotation， he granted leases， made repairs， built， and interested himself in the probabilities of the crops， in the construction of a highway or canal， while his experiences in these matters were equal to those of any lay proprietor. Moreover， being one of a small proprietary corporation， that is to say， a chapter or local vestry， and one of a great proprietary corporation of the diocese and Church of France， he took part directly or indirectly in important temporal affairs， in assemblies， in deliberations， in collective expenditures， in the establishment of a local budget and of a general budget， and hence， in public and administrative matters， his competence was analogous and almost equal to that of a mayor， sub-delegate， farmer-general or intendant. In addition to this he was liberal： never has the French clergy been more earnestly so， from the latest curés back to the first archbishops.[71] - Lastly， remark the distribution of the clergy over the territory. There was a curé or vicar in the smallest of the forty thousand villages. In thousands of small， poor， remote communes， he was the only man who could readily read and write； none other than he in many of the larger rural communes，[72] except the resident seignior and some man of the law or half-way schoolmaster， was at all learned.[73] Actually， for a man who had finished his studies and knowing Latin， to consent， for six hundred francs or three hundred francs a year， to live isolated， and a celibate， almost in indigence， amongst rustics and the poor， he must be a priest； the quality of his office makes him resigned to the discomforts of his situation. A preacher of the Word， a professor of morality， a minister of Charity， a guide and dispenser of spiritual life， he taught a theory of the world， at once consoling and self-denying， which he enforced with a cult， and this cult was the only one adapted to his flock； manifestly， the French， especially those devoted to manual and hard labor， could not regard this world as ideal， except through his formulas； history， the supreme judge， had on this point rendered its verdict without appeal； no heresy， no schism， not the Reformation nor Jansenism， had prevailed against hereditary faith；through infinitely multiplied and deeply penetrating roots this faith suited national customs， temperament， and peculiar social imagination and sensibility. Possessing the heart， the intellect， and even the senses， through fixed， immemorial traditions and habits， it had become an unconscious， almost corporeal necessity， and the Catholic orthodox curé， in communion with the Pope， was about as indispensable to the village as the public fountain； he also quenched thirst， the thirst of the soul； without him， the inhabitants could find no drinkable water.
And， if we keep human weaknesses in mind， it may be said that nobleness of character in the clergy corresponded with nobleness of profession； in all points no one could dispute their capacity for self-sacrifice， for they willingly suffered for what they believed to be the truth. If， in 1790， a number of priests took the oath to the civil constitution of the clergy， it was with reservations， or because they deemed the oath licit； but， after the dismissal of the bishops and the Pope's disapprobation， many of them withdrew it at the risk of their lives， so as not to fall into schism； they fell back into the ranks and gave themselves up voluntarily to the brutality of the crowd and the rigors of the law. Moreover， and from the start， notwithstanding threats and temptations， two-thirds of the clergy would not take the oath； in the highest ranks， among the mundane ecclesiastics whose skepticism and laxity were notorious， honor， in default of faith， maintained the same spirit； nearly the whole of them， great and small， had subordinated their interests， welfare and security to the maintenance of their dignity or to scruples of conscience. They had allowed themselves to be stripped of everything；they let themselves be exiled， imprisoned， tortured and made martyrs of， like the Christians of the primitive church； through their invincible meekness， they were going， like the primitive Christians， to exhaust the rage of their executioners， wear out persecutions， transform opinion and compel the admission， even with those who survived in the eighteenth century， that they were true， deserving and courageous men.
V.The Bourgeoisie.
Where recruited. - Difference between the functionary of the ancient regime and the modern functionary. - Appointments seen as Property.
- Guilds. - Independence and security of office-holders. - Their ambitions are limited and satisfied. - Fixed habits， seriousness and integrity. - Ambition to secure esteem. - Intellectual culture. -Liberal ideas. - Respectability and public zeal. - Conduct of the bourgeoisie in 1789-1791.